Visual Development, Diagnosis, and Treatment of the Pediatric Patient

 

Description:

This second comprehensive edition of Visual Development, Diagnosis, and Treatment of the Pediatric Patient combines basic concepts of vision development with clinical diagnosis and treatment of vision disorders in infants, toddlers, children, and adolescents. Heavily updated, with new sections on timely issues and topics, the book is ideal for anyone who needs to know the practical aspects of evaluation and care of pediatric patients.

 

Table of Contents:

 

Introduction

Part 1: The Development of Vision

1: Development of the Visual System

Building A Transparent Optical System

The Embryonic Period (First 2 Months of Gestation)

The Fetal Period (9 Weeks to Birth)

Summary

Building A Neural Visual System

Formation of the Principal Neural Structures

Axon Growth and Guidance

Synapse Formation

Summary

References

2: Visual Acuity in the Young Child

Nature or Nurture

Early Research on Infant Visual Acuity

Research on Forced-Choice Preferential Looking

Visual Evoked Potentials

Optokinetic Nystagmus

Comparing FPL and VEP

Adaptive Computerized Test of Infant Vision

Vernier Acuity (Hyperacuity)

Visual Acuity Interpretation in the Clinic

Summary

References

3: Contrast Sensitivity Function

Definitions and Nomenclature for Contrast Sensitivity Testing

Components of the Contrast Sensitivity Function

Contrast Sensitivity Test Parameters

Subjective Versus Objective

Symbols Versus Sine-Wave Gratings

Printed Versus Projected

Full Versus Limited Contrast Sensitivity Function

Single Target Versus Multiple Targets

Contrast Sensitivity Tests

Sine-Wave Gratings

Symbols

Visual Evoked Potential

Development of Contrast Sensitivity in Humans

Conditions that Affect Contrast Sensitivity

Environmental Factors

Precorneal Optics

Ocular Optics

Neurologic

Pathologic

Conclusion

References

4: Refractive Error

Emmetropization

Emmetropization as a Passive Process

Emmetropization as an Active Process

Animal Studies

Human Studies

Elements of Emmetropization

The Effect of Optical Intervention on Emmetropization

Refractive Status of Infant and Childhood Groups

Developmental Aspects of Hyperopia, Myopia, Anisometropia, and Astigmatism

Myopia

Myopia Progression

Hyperopia

Accommodative Esotropia

Congenital Conditions

Anisometropia

Astigmatism

Summary

References

5: Eye Movements

Saccadic Eye Movements

Basic Features of Saccadic Movements in Adults

Saccadic Movements in Infants

Mechanisms

Smooth Pursuit Eye Movements

Basic Features of Smooth Pursuit Movements in Adults

Smooth Pursuit Movements in Infants

Mechanisms

Vergence Eye Movements

Basic Features of Vergence Movements in Adults

Vergence Movements in Infants

The Development of Disparity Vergence

Mechanisms

The Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex

Basic Features of the Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex in Adults

The Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex in Infants

Mechanisms

Optokinetic Nystagmus

Basic Features of Optokinetic Nystagmus in Adults

Optokinetic Nystagmus in Infants

Mechanisms

Discussion and Summary

Acknowledgment

References

6: Accommodation

Tonic Accommodation

Proximally Induced Accommodation

Convergent Accommodation

Blur-Driven Accommodation

Summary

References

7: Binocular Vision

Ocular Alignment and Convergence (Bifoveal Fixation)

Sensory Fusion

Stereopsis

Onset of Stereopsis

Development of Stereopsis

Anatomic and Physiologic Basis of Stereopsis

Sensitive Period

Risk Factors for Reduced Binocular Function

References

8:  Color Vision

Testing Infants’ Color Vision

Behavioral Methods

Physiologic Methods

General Problems With Tests of Infants

Spectral Sensitivity

Scotopic Spectral Sensitivity

Infants’ Spectral Sensitivity

Preretinal Light Absorption

Purkinje Shift

Photopic Spectral Sensitivity

Chromatic Discrimination

Emergence of Color Vision

Cone Types and Neuronal Mechanisms

L- and M-Cones: Behavioral Methods

L- and M-Cones: Physiologic Methods

S-Cones: Behavioral Methods

S-Cones: Physiologic Methods

Color Appearance and Color Categories

Why Is Infant Color Vision Poor?

Noise

Poor Contrast Sensitivity

Maturation of the Nervous System

Beyond Infancy

Conclusions

References

9: Development of a Normal Child

Normal Pregnancy

Prenatal Development

Birth

Labor and Delivery

Newborn Assessment and Care

Reflexes

Motor Development

Cognitive Development

Emotional and Social Development

Infant

Toddler

Preschool and School Age

Language Development

Conclusion

References

10: Visual Concerns in the Child With Special Needs

Introduction

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Learning Disability

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Acquired Brain Injury

Cortical (Cerebral) Visual Impairment

Down Syndrome

Cerebral Palsy

Intellectual Disability

Modifications to the Optometric Examination

Visual Acuity Testing

Binocular Vision Testing

Accommodative Testing

Ocular Motor Function

Refractive Error Assessment

Ocular Health

Visual Perceptual Evaluation

Treatment

Lenses

Prism

Eyeglass Frame Selection

Vision Therapy/Visual Rehabilitation

Conclusion

References

Part 2: Evaluation of Visual Function

11: The Pediatric Case History

Case History

Chief Complaint

History of Present Illness

Past Ocular History

Patient Medical History

Pregnancy and Birth History

Developmental History

Family Medical History

Social History

Conclusions

References

Appendix A

Appendix B

12: Infant, Toddler, and Children’s Visual Acuity—Practical Aspects

Infant Visual Acuity

Forced-Choice Preferential Looking

Teller Visual Acuity Cards

Lea Gratings

Face-Dot Paddles

Visual Evoked Potential

Informal Visual Acuity Techniques

Toddler Visual Acuity

Cardiff Acuity Test

Broken Wheel Cards

Lea Symbols Test

Patti Pics

HOTV Chart

Landolt C

Tumbling E

School-Aged Visual Acuity

Snellen Charts

LogMAR

Specialized Testing

References

13: Abnormalities of the Anterior Segment

Adnexa and Lids

Capillary Hemangioma

Dermoid

Chalazia and Hordeola

Eyelid Laceration

Congenital Blepharoptosis

Blepharitis

Ectropion

Entropion

Coloboma

Congenital Arteriovenous Malformation

Congenital Nasolacrimal Duct Obstruction

Dacryocystocele

Cellulitis

Molluscum Contagiosum

Conjunctiva

Foreign Body

Laceration

Conjunctivitis

Cornea

Corneal Abrasions and Foreign Bodies

Superficial Punctate Keratitis

Dry Eye Syndrome

Corneal Dystrophies

Structural Anomalies of the Cornea

Iris

Uveitis

Anterior Segment Dysgenesis

Axenfeld–Rieger Syndrome

Peters’ Anomaly

Aniridia

Glaucoma

Primary Glaucoma

Secondary Glaucoma

Lens

Cataract

Lens Subluxation

References

14: Abnormalities of the Posterior Segment

Assessment

Ciliary Body

Posterior Uveitis

Panuveitis

Vitreous

Persistent Fetal Vasculature

Retina

Developmental Anomalies

Vascular Anomalies

Genetic Disorders

Juvenile Macular Degenerations

Familial Exudative Vitreoretinopathy

Angioid Streaks

Neoplasia

Retinoblastoma

Systemic Disease

Child Abuse

Congenital Hypertrophy of the RPE

Glaucoma

References

15: Assessment and Anomalies of Neurologic Function

Afferent Visual System

Assessment of the Afferent Visual System

Afferent Visual System Anomalies

Efferent Visual System

Assessment of the Efferent Visual System

Efferent Visual System Anomalies

References

16: Quantification of Refractive Error

Dry Retinoscopy

Instrumentation

Fixation Targets

Technique

Cycloplegic Retinoscopy

Medications

Methods

Mohindra Retinoscopy

Subjective Refraction

Visual Evoked Potentials

Autorefraction

Background

Features

Types

Instruments

Photorefraction

Background

Types of Systems

Instruments

Summary

References

17: Pediatric and Adolescent Contact Lens Correction

Medically Necessary Contact Lenses

Indications

Lens Options

Contact Lens Power

Contact Lens Fit Assessment

Application and Removal

Wear Schedule

Follow-Up Care

Spectacles

Amblyopia Therapy

Infant Aphakia Versus Infant Intraocular Lens

Elective Contact Lenses

Risks of Elective Contact Lens Wear in Children

Myopia Control

How Contact Lenses Slow Myopic Eye Growth

Off-Label Use of Contact Lenses for Myopia Control

Soft Multifocal Contact Lenses

Orthokeratology

Comparison of Myopia Control Using Soft Multifocal and Orthokeratology Contact Lenses

Myopia Control Discussion With Parents

Summary

References

18: Evaluation of Ocular Motor Function

Light Reflex Tests

Brückner Test

Hirschberg Test

Krimsky Test

Cover Testing

Unilateral Cover Testing

Alternate Cover Testing

Simultaneous Cover Test

Confounding Factors in the Assessment of Ocular Alignment in Young Children

Versions and Ductions

Saccades

Vergence

Summary

References

19: Assessing Stereopsis and Fusion

Why Test for Stereopsis and Fusion in Infants and Children?

Stereopsis and Stereoacuity

Measuring Stereopsis

Randot Stereo Test

Titmus Stereo Fly Test

Distance Stereopsis Tests

Stereopsis as A Vision Training Tool

Clinical Testing Considerations

Filter Considerations

Age Considerations

Screening Considerations

Strabismus and Amblyopia Considerations

Fusion

Measuring Fusion

Tests Measuring Ocular Alignment: Phoria

Tests Measuring Ocular Alignment: Fixation Disparity and Associated Phoria

Tests Measuring Fusional Vergence

Smooth Vergence Ranges

Step Vergence Ranges

Vergence Facility

Sensory Fusion Ranges

Indirect Measures of Fusional Vergence

Near Point of Convergence

Negative Relative Accommodation/Positive Relative Accommodation

Binocular Accommodative Facility

Tests Measuring Different Levels of Fusion

Worth 4-Dot

Keystone Visual Skills Cards

Cheiroscopic Tracing Test

Van Orden Star Test

Computer-Based Testing

Computer Orthoptics VTS 4

RightEye

G LABS: Opto App

Virtual Reality

Summary

Clinical Relevance of Stereopsis Testing

Clinical Relevance of Fusion Testing

References

20: Evaluation of Accommodation

Importance of Evaluating Accommodation

Evaluation of Accommodation

Clinical Tests

Accommodative Amplitude

Accommodative Response

Accommodative Facility

Relative Accommodation

Test Norms and Parameters

Accommodative Amplitude

Accommodative Response

Accommodative Facility

Relative Accommodation

Diagnosis of Accommodative Dysfunction

Classification

Case History

Accommodative Insufficiency

Ill-Sustained Accommodation

Accommodative Excess or Accommodative Spasm

Accommodative Infacility

Paresis or Paralysis of Accommodation

Treatment of Accommodative Disorders

Summary

References

21: Pediatric Color Vision Testing

Color Vision History

Significance of Test Design

Color Vision Tests

Anomaloscopy

Pseudoisochromatic Plates

Arrangement Tests

Computer-Based Color Vision Tests

General Testing Considerations

Lighting

Test Distance

Time Exposure

Test Batteries

Birth to Two Years

Three Years to Five Years

Six Years to Eight Years

Nine Years and Above

Management

Counseling

Tints for Color Deficiency

Technology

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

22: Evaluation Strategies Using Electrodiagnostics

Clinical Guidelines

Visual Evoked Potential/Visual Evoked Response

Electrode Types

Targets for VEP

Spatial Frequency

Speed of Reversals—Temporal Frequency

VEP/VER Analysis

10% Rule—A General Guideline

A Case of Amblyopia

Strabismus

End-to-End Testing

Electroretinogram

Classic or Bright Flash ERG

Multifocal ERG

Electrooculogram

Conclusion

References

Part 3: Treatment Strategies

23: Prescribing Lenses for the Pediatric Patient

Factors to Consider

Clinician Surveys

Prescribing Recommendations by Refractive Condition

The Big Picture

General Recommendations

References

24: Strabismus: Development, Diagnostics, and Rehabilitation

Introduction

Advantages of Strabismus

Diagnosis of Strabismus in the Pediatric Population

Refraction

Refractive State and Strabismus

Off-Axis Retinoscopy

Mohindra Retinoscopy

Cycloplegic Refraction

Visual Acuity

Amblyopic “Behavior” During Acuity Testing

Using Different Types of Acuity Tests

Monocular Fixation

Eccentric Fixation (EF)

Tests for Eccentric Fixation

Ocular Alignment

Cover Test

Hirschberg, Krimsky, and Brückner Tests

The Accommodative-Vergence Relationship

Comitance

Incomitant Deviations

Testing Incomitant Deviations

Vertical Incomitance

Sensory Adaptations

Suppression

Anomalous Correspondence (Anomalous Projection)

Treatment of Strabismus

What Constitutes Successful Treatment of Strabismus?

Optometric Strabismus Treatment Options/Strategies

Lens-Based Treatment

Prism-Based Treatment (Without Active Vision Therapy)

Occlusion-Based Treatment (Without Active Vision Therapy)

Refractive Guidance and Home-Based Vision Therapy Activities

In-Office Optometric Vision Therapy Treatment Strategies

Adjunct Home-Based Vision Therapy Activities

Referring for Strabismus Intervention

When to Refer? And to Whom?

Maintenance and Long-term Follow-up Care

References

25: Amblyopia: Diagnosis and Treatment

Introduction

Current Clinical Definition

Prevalence

Risk Factors Associated with Amblyopia

Is There Such A Thing as an Amblyopic Eye?

Classification of Amblyopia

Diagnosing Amblyopia

History

Assessment of Visual Acuity

Assessment of Fixation

Assessment of Binocular Vision

Additional Testing

Retinoscopy/Refraction

Assessment of Ocular Health

Amblyopia Treatment

Refractive Correction: Optical Treatment

Patching/Occlusion

Effect of Strabismus

Monitoring of Treatment

Frequency of Visits

Modification of Therapy

Factors Affecting Prognosis

Patient Education

Compliance

Psychological Impact

Effect of Age

Clinical Characteristics of Amblyopia

Future Predictive Measures for Prognosis

Active Vision Therapy

Therapy Concept Routes

Historic Methods

Evidence Base

Therapeutic Sequence for Vision Therapy

Conclusion

References

26: Vision Therapy for Young Children

Introduction

Five Key Vision Training Areas—Fixate, Follow, Focus, Fuse, and Figure-Out

Assessment of Visual Processing Skills

Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (BeeryTM VMI)

Gesell Developmental Copy Forms Test

Gesell Incomplete Man Test

Goodenough Draw-A-Person Test

Gesell Cube Block Construction

Form Board Puzzles

Wachs Analysis of Cognitive Structures (WACS)

Standing Angels in the Snow

Visual Skills Training

Adapting Vision Training Activities for Young or Developmentally Delayed Patients

Clinical Pearls From Linda Sanet, COVT

Vision Therapy Activities

Vision Therapy Approach

Tracking Activities: Oculomotor Skills

References

27: Sports Vision

References

28: An Approach to the Care and (Re)Habilitation of the Pediatric Patient With Visual and Other Impairments

Introduction

Cortical/Cerebral Vision Impairment: Background and Approach to Evaluation and Management

Epidemiology of Visual Impairment in Children

Educational Services and Summary of Additional Rehabilitation Service Providers

Assessment of Visual Function in the Child With Vision Impairment: Modifying Your Examination

Assessment of Print Size and Reading Ability

Considering Visual Assistive Equipment

Cases

Conclusion

References

Index

 

An aparitie	1 Dec. 2019
Autor	SCHNELL
Dimensiuni	17.78 x 2.29 x 25.15 cm
Editura	LWW
Format	Paperback
ISBN	9781975111441
Limba	Engleza
Nr pag	450
Versiune digitala	DA